Exploring Community Perceptions and Coping Strategies on Violence in Rakhine State, Myanmar
The emergence of the concept of unarmed civilian protection (UCP) in recent years has generated an interest in documenting different case studies of civilian self-protection strategies. This research project focused on Myanmar. Decades after its independence, the country’s population still lives under constant threats of violence in the context of both state-sponsored conflict and inter-communal conflict. This project offers a glimpse into the nation’s experience by investigating the experiences of people in Rakhine state.
Different ethnic communities living in central and northern Rakhine have been exposed, to varying degrees, to diverse forms of violence. In the span of two decades, there were at least three crises that sparked violent incidents across the region: the 2012 sectarian conflict between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims in northern Rakhine; the 2016- 2017 violent campaign against the Rohingya; and the frequent armed tensions between Myanmar’s armed force, the Tatmadaw, and the Arakan Army (AA), the armed wing of an ethnic insurgency group, the United League of Arakan (ULA). These crises have never truly been reconciled but linger as the drivers to violence in the region. Different ethnic communities are exposed to violence in different ways.
Against this background, this project sought to understand the Rakhine people’s precarious journey of living in contexts of violence with different powerful actors. The project focused on three key areas of research: 1) civilian engagement with/disengagement from authorities, either military or ethnic armed groups; 2) civilian strategies for protection from violence; and 3) networks or infrastructures offering civilian protection.
The article draws upon fieldwork in Myanmar’s Rakhine State to analyse the relationship between ordinary people and competing authorities during armed conflict. In particular, the paper investigates the sources of agency that enable civilians to engage with armed actors, for instance, to ensure their own protection.
Drawing by a research participant in Myanmar, describing life before the conflict. More drawings can be viewed at the online Creating Safer Space 360° Exhibition.
Mapping and Responding to Vulnerability through Nonviolent Collective Actions in Buenaventura, Colombia
On Colombia’s Pacific Coast, Buenaventura is a region of majority Afrodescendent and indigenous people, shaped by a long history of civilian resistance. It is one of the regions that has been most deeply impacted by the armed conflict. Currently it houses Colombia’s largest port, yet the economic gains have not been shared with its inhabitants, wherefore young people are more easily recruited into the armed conflict. Because of the long trajectory of violence, it was one of the regions prioritised in the 2016 Peace Accords. However, the implementation has fallen short. This has left communities to survive in the midst of an escalating social and armed conflict, resulting from the actions of armed groups and exclusionary policies that increase their collective vulnerability to harm.
The specific aims of this research project were to:
Map vulnerability to physical harm of Afro-descendent and indigenous communities in Buenaventura, Colombia.
Examine how community members experience this vulnerability while navigating their specific geographical contexts.
Explore ways in which community members have built strategies collectively to respond to and mitigate community and individual vulnerability.
The Humanitarian Space Puente Nayero, Buenaventura
RESEARCH TEAM
Enrique Chimonja, FOR Peace Presence, Colombia (principal investigator)
Manuel Müller, FOR Peace Presence, Colombia (principal investigator)
Kati Hinman, FOR Peace Presence, Colombia (co-investigator)
In order to achieve Aim 1 (“Map vulnerability to physical harm of Afro-descendent and indigenous communities in Buenaventura, Colombia”) we conducted community workshops and mapping exercises in 6 communities:
The Afrodescendent community of La Esperanza;
The Afrodescendent women’s collective AINI of the Naya River;
The indigenous community Santa Rosa de Guayacán;
The Afrodescendent community of the Puente Nayero humanitarian space;
The LGBTQIA2S+ and Afrodescendent community of Punta Icaco humanitarian space;
The indigenous community of Valledupar.
These workshops focused on their collective identity and the impact of violence on their lives and the different actors that operate in their territories and influence violence. People worked in groups to make maps or representations of their communities and talk about the assets and vulnerabilities within their communities.
In order to achieve Aim 2 (“Examine how community members experience this vulnerability while navigating their specific geographical contexts”) we conducted focus groups with different sub populations to understand how people navigate violence and keep themselves safe at different intersects of identity:
Rural Afrodescendent women;
Urban Afrodescendent women;
Rural indigenous women;
LGBTQIA+ young people;
Urban men;
Rural young people;
Social leaders and human rights defenders.
Research participants work in groups to make representations of their communities.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
At the community workshops for Aim 1, we heard repeatedly from indigenous and Afrodescendent participants how important the relationship with the land is to their cultural identities, and how displacement threatens this. For indigenous participants in particular, the greatest fear for many was losing their lands. We also heard about how communities see a link between their stewardship of natural resources and the violence they have experienced because of external interests in extracting those resources.
In the focus groups for Aim 2, we saw that many of the protection strategies being employed by people at different intersects of identity were collective, such as travelling to unsafe places in groups, identifying safe houses, developing relationships with neighbours to look out for each other in the neighbourhood, and discussing travel plans with family and loved ones. We were surprised to note that despite known risks of violence and mistreatment at home for LGBTQ+ people, in our focus group only one participant noted home as an unsafe space, although others commented that feeling safe at home was something they had worked to achieve over time and by being selective in who they lived with.
For our Aim 3 discussions, we heard about how collective strategies like the Puente Nayero humanitarian space in urban Buenaventura and the Humanitarian Shelter of the Wounaan Phobor community provided the safest conditions for residents that they saw available. While residents did not say that they ever felt completely safe, the social cohesion and political organising of these spaces were their most effective protection. These spaces are both supported through internal organising by residents but also by partnerships with external organisations like CONPAZCOL, and through national and international advocacy that bring visibility and international accompaniment to the initiatives.
The territory of the AINI Women’s collective in the Naya river. The flag is a protection measure to visibilize our presence.
Exploring unarmed civilian self-protection in Cameroon’s Anglophone conflict
This research investigated community-led initiatives of unarmed civilian protection in the ongoing ‘Anglophone conflict’ in Cameroon. Subjected to violence from both the military and armed separatist groups, civilians have been pro-active and resourceful in devising ways to protect each other and stay safe, inclusive of coded language, non-verbal communication, direct negotiation with the warring parties, early warning networks and information sharing through local associations and social media. The creation of a culture where ‘everybody is one another’s keeper’ has been crucial in enabling citizens to sustain their lives within the conflict zones since 2016. The role of women and women’s organisations is especially significant. Thus, this research explored bottom-up approaches to UCP, inclusive of their strengthening, and provides an important contribution to knowledge about informal and innovative grassroots efforts of civilian self-protection that involve vulnerable civilians’ own agency. Research methods included arts-based and creative approaches (participatory storytelling, poetry, and drawing) that enable conflict-affected communities to co-create knowledge. The research project was conducted by a team of UK-based and Cameroon-based researchers and practitioners that has previously undertaken successful research on this neglected conflict. The three NGO members are all currently involved in providing humanitarian support to civilians in the conflict zones.
RESEARCH FINDINGS
Unarmed civilian protection in the context of the Anglophone conflict is predominantly led and implemented by local citizens affected by the conflict. Civilians employ a plethora of homegrown and digital unarmed self-protection strategies. We categorise these under three headings – spontaneous measures, early warning and response measures, and preventive measures.
Local agency is critical in the implementation of unarmed civilian protection. Civilians in the Anglophone conflict have been innovative and resourceful in the strategies adopted. Some strategies such as ‘dressing appropriately’ have been rather unique to this conflict, while others such as neutrality and protective silence are seen in other conflicts.
Individuals and communities have largely devised their own self-protection strategies, with support from outside agencies either absent or limited to humanitarian assistance, due to government hostility to any perceived outside interference. Yet community self-protection can potentially be strengthened through enhanced vertical linkages to local and international NGOs. Local NGOs have a role to play in strengthening civilian efforts through funding, capacity strengthening, and partnerships with local community groups. International NGOs can provide financial support to support these activities. Reflection is needed, however, on the appropriate funding model and partnership approach, allowing community self-protection strategies to be supported without the imposition of international NGOs’ preconceived UCP agendas.
Contribution to Knowledge
The study has demonstrated how people in conflict-affected communities are active agents in their own protection, something less commonly covered in the literature. In particular, the study has highlighted the significance of grassroots actors in the provision of UCP. Overall, the study shows that community self-protection measures are important not only in the absence of external actors, but also that such external bodies, both national and international, should learn from the protective measures adopted by local actors, and seek to support and strengthen these. Grassroots actors are most familiar with the terrain and context and play a critical role in their own protection. Therefore, it is essential that outside bodies, especially international organisations, acknowledge this and allow local groups to take the lead in determining the most appropriate community protection measures.
Methodologically, the study demonstrated the relevance and beneficial nature of participatory and arts-based methods. First, creative safe spaces were provided in which participants could share their experiences freely and creatively without fear of possible reprisals. Through drawing, for example, participants found a non-verbal safe space to express their views, emotions, and experiences of the conflict and their unarmed protection strategies. Secondly, this enabled participants to be authors of their own stories and experiences through the creative processes of storytelling, drawing, and poetry writing. Participants felt a sense of pride in demonstrating their ‘hidden’ skills in telling their stories through these mediums.
PI: Prof Gordon Crawford, is Research Professor in Global Development, Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations (CTPSR), Coventry University (CU). He is responsible for overall leadership, research design and management of the project, including ethical approval and write-up of research outputs and dissemination.
Co-I: Prof James Kiven Kewir, is a Professor of Conflict Prevention and Regional Integration and Research Hub Leader for Central Africa, African Leadership Centre (ALC), Nairobi, Kenya. He is responsible for organisation and management of all aspects of data collection in Cameroon, and management of Cameroonian team members. Contribution to write-up of outputs and dissemination.
Co-I: Dr Nancy Annan, is an Assistant Professor, at the Centre for Trust Peace and Social Relations (CTPSR), Coventry University (CU). She is responsible for review of relevant secondary literature on UPC and the Anglophone conflict, preparation of interview guides, data transcriptions and analysis using NVivo, project webpage and social media presence. Contribution to write-up of outputs and dissemination. Twitter: @NAnnan_dr
Co-I: Dr Bernard Sakah, is the Managing Director of Big Steps Outreach Network (BONET), Cameroon. BONET is a youth organisation. Responsible for organisation of data collection in the Northwest Region, and a focus on youth participation.
Co-I: Ms Atim Evenye Niger-Thomas, is the Assistant Executive Director, Authentic Memorial Empowerment Foundation (AMEF- https://ameffoundation.org/), Cameroon. She is a PhD candidate in Conflict Management and Peacebuilding at International University of Applied Sciences for Development (IUASD) Sao Tome in partnership with IPD Yaoundé. Responsible for organisation of data collection in the Southwest Region.
Co-I: Ms Zoneziwoh Mbondgulo-Wondieh, is the Executive Director, Women for a Change (Wfac – https://wfaccameroon.org/), Cameroon. She is a PhD candidate at the University of Buea. She is jointly responsible for organisation of data collection, focusing on women’s participation. Facilitator of participatory storytelling workshops.
African Leadership Centre (ALC): ALC at King’s College London and Nairobi are a community of leaders driving peace, security, and development. We offer courses, programmes and research opportunities to inform and influence debate on issues of peace, leadership, development and security. Website:https://www.kcl.ac.uk/alc; https://africanleadershipcentre.org/ Twitter: @ALC_KCL
Big Steps Outreach Network (BONET): BONET is a youth led non-profit making organization created in 2010 and has been involved in activities including governance, democracy, human rights, sexual reproductive health and rights, community education, empowerment and entrepreneurship as well as humanitarian interventions across Cameroon. Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/BigStepsOutreachNetwork Website: www.bonetweb.org Twitter: @bigstepoutreach
Authentic Memorial Empowerment Foundation (AMEF): AMEF is a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) created in 2006 and legalized in 2008 with a vision to cater for the rights of the girl child, young girls, and women entrapped by gender-based violence. AMEF runs four core programs namely; Education and Child Protection (ECP), Economic Development and Livelihood (EDL), Gender, Protection and Peace (GPP), Health/Nutrition/ WASH (HNW) Website: www.ameffoundation.org, Facebook: Amef Kumba-cameroon, Twitter: @AtimEvenye, @amef_kumba
The Cameroon Anglophone Crisis Database of Atrocities (CDOA): CDOA held at the University of Toronto, is an organization that documents and investigates human rights abuses in the context of Cameroon’s Anglophone Crisis. The Database of Atrocities uses open-source intelligence methods and geospatial expertise to verify incidents, working with trained university teams around the world. Website: https://research.rotman.utoronto.ca/Cameroon/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/cameroondoa
The Creating Safer Space network has recently held a funding competition, and we have awarded funding to 13 research projects that will further our understanding of unarmed civilian protection and self-protection amidst violent conflict.
Projects will focus on the core countries of the Creating Safer Space network – Colombia, South Sudan, Myanmar and the Philippines – and we are also pleased to support projects in Cameroon, Palestine and Nigeria.
Four of the successful projects are led by organisations in the Global South. The remaining are led by UK universities, but all include co-investigators and/or project partners from the Global South.
The Creating Safer Space funding panel was impressed with the high quality of the applications. We received 59 applications in total, of which 50 projects met the basic eligibility criteria. We sincerely regret that we are not able to fund all high quality projects.
More information about the new research projects will be available on our Projects page in due course.
Research Café: Strategies for Community Protection and dealing with Election Violence
The aim of the Creating Safer Space Café is to enable people in different parts of the world to exchange knowledge and to help build a community of Unarmed Civilian Protection (UCP) researchers and practitioners.
This month, Mr Thiago Wolfer (Nonviolent Peaceforce South Sudan) and Prof. Rachel Julian (Leeds Beckett University) will discuss how UCP approaches that have been used to prevent violence in South Sudan could be adapted and implemented in dealing with election violence, looking at Kenya in particular and how it applies to other areas.
While focused on Kenya and South Sudan, this café will also be very relevant to any researchers or practitioners elsewhere in the world, who would like to know more about how UCP can be implemented in different conflict situations.
Once you have registered for the event, you will receive an email with Zoom joining details.
New Training Course on UCP
The Creating Safer Space research network invites Expressions of Interest to participate in a 10-week training course on “Strengthening Civilian Capacities to Protect Civilians”.
This course is an introduction to the objectives, principles, sources of guidance, and methods of Unarmed Civilian Protection (UCP). The course is led by Dr Ellen Furnari and Dr Thor Wagstrom, and is based on course content developed by our partner organisation Nonviolent Peaceforce. There are no course fees, and course material will be provided for free.
The course dates are 26 March – 4 June 2022. The course will require about 8-10 hours per week to read, participate and complete assignments. Participants complete all activities online through modules that are accessed through the course website. While there are no scheduled meetings for this course, participants are invited to meet the course facilitators and each other during an informal kick-off Zoom meeting on Saturday 26 March. Additional informal meetings are likely to be arranged during the course, but attendance will not be required.
Eligibility Researchers, Masters/PhD students and relevant practitioners are invited to submit an Expression of Interest to participate in this course. Anyone is welcome to apply, but places are limited. Priority will be given to those candidates who are most likely to benefit from the course, with priority to candidates from the UK and from the Global South. We especially encourage applicants for our research grants to apply.
How to apply Please submit an Expression of Interest of no more than 100 words to creating-safer-space@aber.ac.uk, with an explanation of your interest in the course and how it would benefit you in your work or studies.
More information about the content of the course is available on here.
Research Café: Using Textiles as a Research Method
The aim of the Creating Safer Space Café is to enable people in different parts of the world to exchange knowledge and to help build a community of Unarmed Civilian Protection (UCP) researchers and practitioners.
This month, Prof. Beatriz Arias (University of Antioquia) will provide an introduction to using textiles (embroidering, sewing, and other needlework) as a participatory and creative research method, and will explore the benefits of using this method for research on Unarmed Civilian Protection.
12.30 – 2.00 pm UTC on Thursday 17 March
The session will be held in English and Spanish with simultaneous translation.
Agnieszka Ziatek-Tith supports the Creating Safer Space network with monitoring costs, advising on financial matters, and processing payments to partners and commissioned projects around the world. She will gladly answer all your questions about these subjects.
Research Cafés on Creative Research Methods
The Creating Safer Space network has organised two Research Cafés to inform researchers about creative research methods, and the benefits of such methods for research on Unarmed Civilian Protection.
Using Textiles as a Research Method
On Thursday 17 March 2022, Prof. Beatriz Arias provided an an introduction to using textiles (embroidering, sewing, and other needlework) as a participatory and creative research method.
Using Drawing as a Research Method
On Thursday 17 February 2022, Prof. Berit Bliesemann de Guevara provided an introduction to ‘Drawing Out’ as a participatory and creative research method.
New work package: Nonviolent Artivism Against Police Brutality in Kenya
The Creating Safer Space network is pleased to announce a new work package on the following topic:
Nonviolent Artivism Against Police Brutality in Kenya
The work package is led by Martha Okumu (Peace Tree Network) in collaboration with Elias Opongo (Hekima University College).
